gdalexif.cpp

/******************************************************************************
 *
 * Project:  GDAL
 * Purpose:  Implements a EXIF directory reader
 * Author:   Frank Warmerdam, warmerdam@pobox.com
 *
 ******************************************************************************
 * Copyright (c) 2000, Frank Warmerdam
 * Copyright (c) 2012,2017, Even Rouault <even dot rouault at spatialys.com>
 *
 * Portions Copyright (c) Her majesty the Queen in right of Canada as
 * represented by the Minister of National Defence, 2006.
 *
 * SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
 ****************************************************************************/

#include "cpl_port.h"
#include "gdal_priv.h"
#include "gdalexif.h"

#include <climits>
#include <cmath>
#include <cstddef>
#include <cstdio>
#include <cstring>
#if HAVE_FCNTL_H
#include <fcntl.h>
#endif

#include <algorithm>
#include <limits>
#include <vector>

#include "cpl_conv.h"
#include "cpl_error.h"
#include "cpl_string.h"
#include "cpl_vsi.h"

using std::vector;

constexpr int MAXSTRINGLENGTH = 65535;
constexpr int EXIFOFFSETTAG = 0x8769;
constexpr int INTEROPERABILITYOFFSET = 0xA005;
constexpr int GPSOFFSETTAG = 0x8825;

constexpr GUInt16 TAG_SIZE = 12;
constexpr GUInt16 EXIF_HEADER_SIZE = 6;

constexpr char COND_MANDATORY = 'M';
constexpr char COND_RECOMMENDED = 'R';
constexpr char COND_OPTIONAL = 'O';
constexpr char COND_NOT_ALLOWED = 'N';
constexpr char COND_NOT_ALLOWED_EVEN_IN_JPEG_MARKER = 'J';

struct EXIFTagDesc
{
    GUInt16 tag;
    GDALEXIFTIFFDataType datatype;
    GUInt32 length;
    const char *name;
    // comprCond is only used when DUMP_EXIF_ITEMS is defined
    // cppcheck-suppress unusedStructMember
    char comprCond;
};

static const EXIFTagDesc gpstags[] = {
    {0x00, TIFF_BYTE, 4, "EXIF_GPSVersionID", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x01, TIFF_ASCII, 2, "EXIF_GPSLatitudeRef", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x02, TIFF_RATIONAL, 3, "EXIF_GPSLatitude", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x03, TIFF_ASCII, 2, "EXIF_GPSLongitudeRef", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x04, TIFF_RATIONAL, 3, "EXIF_GPSLongitude", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x05, TIFF_BYTE, 1, "EXIF_GPSAltitudeRef", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x06, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_GPSAltitude", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x07, TIFF_RATIONAL, 3, "EXIF_GPSTimeStamp", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x08, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_GPSSatellites", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x09, TIFF_ASCII, 2, "EXIF_GPSStatus", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x0a, TIFF_ASCII, 2, "EXIF_GPSMeasureMode", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x0b, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_GPSDOP", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x0c, TIFF_ASCII, 2, "EXIF_GPSSpeedRef", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x0d, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_GPSSpeed", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x0e, TIFF_ASCII, 2, "EXIF_GPSTrackRef", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x0f, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_GPSTrack", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x10, TIFF_ASCII, 2, "EXIF_GPSImgDirectionRef", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x11, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_GPSImgDirection", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x12, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_GPSMapDatum", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x13, TIFF_ASCII, 2, "EXIF_GPSDestLatitudeRef", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x14, TIFF_RATIONAL, 3, "EXIF_GPSDestLatitude", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x15, TIFF_ASCII, 2, "EXIF_GPSDestLongitudeRef", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x16, TIFF_RATIONAL, 3, "EXIF_GPSDestLongitude", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x17, TIFF_ASCII, 2, "EXIF_GPSDestBearingRef", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x18, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_GPSDestBearing", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x19, TIFF_ASCII, 2, "EXIF_GPSDestDistanceRef", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x1a, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_GPSDestDistance", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x1b, TIFF_UNDEFINED, 0, "EXIF_GPSProcessingMethod", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x1c, TIFF_UNDEFINED, 0, "EXIF_GPSAreaInformation", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x1d, TIFF_ASCII, 11, "EXIF_GPSDateStamp", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x1e, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_GPSDifferential", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x1f, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_GPSHPositioningError", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xffff, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "", COND_NOT_ALLOWED}};

static const EXIFTagDesc exiftags[] = {
    //{ 0x100, "EXIF_Image_Width"},
    //  { 0x101, "EXIF_Image_Length"},
    {0x102, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_BitsPerSample",
     COND_NOT_ALLOWED_EVEN_IN_JPEG_MARKER},
    {0x103, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_Compression",
     COND_NOT_ALLOWED_EVEN_IN_JPEG_MARKER},
    {0x106, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_PhotometricInterpretation", COND_NOT_ALLOWED},
    {0x10A, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_Fill_Order",
     COND_NOT_ALLOWED_EVEN_IN_JPEG_MARKER},  // not sure of cond
    {0x10D, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_Document_Name",
     COND_OPTIONAL},  // not sure of cond
    {0x10E, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_ImageDescription", COND_RECOMMENDED},
    {0x10F, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_Make", COND_RECOMMENDED},
    {0x110, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_Model", COND_RECOMMENDED},
    {0x111, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_StripOffsets", COND_NOT_ALLOWED},
    {0x112, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_Orientation", COND_RECOMMENDED},
    {0x115, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_SamplesPerPixel",
     COND_NOT_ALLOWED_EVEN_IN_JPEG_MARKER},
    {0x116, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_RowsPerStrip", COND_NOT_ALLOWED},
    {0x117, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_StripByteCounts", COND_NOT_ALLOWED},
    {0x11A, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_XResolution", COND_MANDATORY},
    {0x11B, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_YResolution", COND_MANDATORY},
    {0x11C, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_PlanarConfiguration",
     COND_NOT_ALLOWED_EVEN_IN_JPEG_MARKER},
    {0x128, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_ResolutionUnit", COND_MANDATORY},
    {0x12D, TIFF_SHORT, 768, "EXIF_TransferFunction", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x131, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_Software", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x132, TIFF_ASCII, 20, "EXIF_DateTime", COND_RECOMMENDED},
    {0x13B, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_Artist", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x13E, TIFF_RATIONAL, 2, "EXIF_WhitePoint", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x13F, TIFF_RATIONAL, 6, "EXIF_PrimaryChromaticities", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x156, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_Transfer_Range",
     COND_NOT_ALLOWED},  // not sure of cond
    {0x200, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_JPEG_Proc",
     COND_NOT_ALLOWED},  // not sure of cond
    {0x201, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_JPEGInterchangeFormat", COND_NOT_ALLOWED},
    {0x202, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_JPEGInterchangeFormatLength",
     COND_NOT_ALLOWED},
    {0x211, TIFF_RATIONAL, 3, "EXIF_YCbCrCoefficients", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x212, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_YCbCrSubSampling",
     COND_NOT_ALLOWED_EVEN_IN_JPEG_MARKER},
    {0x213, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_YCbCrPositioning", COND_MANDATORY},
    {0x214, TIFF_RATIONAL, 6, "EXIF_ReferenceBlackWhite", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x2BC, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_XmlPacket",
     COND_OPTIONAL},  // not in the EXIF standard. But found in some images
    {0x828D, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_CFA_Repeat_Pattern_Dim", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x828E, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_CFA_Pattern", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x828F, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_Battery_Level", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x8298, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_Copyright",
     COND_OPTIONAL},  // that one is an exception: high tag number, but should
                      // go to main IFD
    {0x829A, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_ExposureTime", COND_RECOMMENDED},
    {0x829D, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_FNumber", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x83BB, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_IPTC/NAA", COND_OPTIONAL},
    // { 0x8769, "EXIF_Offset"},
    {0x8773, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "EXIF_Inter_Color_Profile", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x8822, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_ExposureProgram", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x8824, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_SpectralSensitivity", COND_OPTIONAL},
    // { 0x8825, "EXIF_GPSOffset"},
    {0x8827, TIFF_SHORT, 0, "EXIF_ISOSpeedRatings", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x8828, TIFF_UNDEFINED, 0, "EXIF_OECF", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x8830, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_SensitivityType", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x8831, TIFF_LONG, 1, "EXIF_StandardOutputSensitivity", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x8832, TIFF_LONG, 1, "EXIF_RecommendedExposureIndex", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x8833, TIFF_LONG, 1, "EXIF_ISOSpeed", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x8834, TIFF_LONG, 1, "EXIF_ISOSpeedLatitudeyyy", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x8835, TIFF_LONG, 1, "EXIF_ISOSpeedLatitudezzz", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9000, TIFF_UNDEFINED, 4, "EXIF_ExifVersion", COND_MANDATORY},
    {0x9003, TIFF_ASCII, 20, "EXIF_DateTimeOriginal", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9004, TIFF_ASCII, 20, "EXIF_DateTimeDigitized", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9010, TIFF_ASCII, 7, "EXIF_OffsetTime", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9011, TIFF_ASCII, 7, "EXIF_OffsetTimeOriginal", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9012, TIFF_ASCII, 7, "EXIF_OffsetTimeDigitized", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9101, TIFF_UNDEFINED, 4, "EXIF_ComponentsConfiguration", COND_MANDATORY},
    {0x9102, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_CompressedBitsPerPixel", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9201, TIFF_SRATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_ShutterSpeedValue", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9202, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_ApertureValue", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9203, TIFF_SRATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_BrightnessValue", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9204, TIFF_SRATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_ExposureBiasValue", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9205, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_MaxApertureValue", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9206, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_SubjectDistance", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9207, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_MeteringMode", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9208, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_LightSource", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9209, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_Flash", COND_RECOMMENDED},
    {0x920A, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_FocalLength", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9214, TIFF_SHORT, 0, "EXIF_SubjectArea",
     COND_OPTIONAL},  // count = 2, 3 or 4
    {0x927C, TIFF_UNDEFINED, 0, "EXIF_MakerNote", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9286, TIFF_UNDEFINED, 0, "EXIF_UserComment", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9290, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_SubSecTime", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9291, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_SubSecTime_Original", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x9292, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_SubSecTime_Digitized", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA000, TIFF_UNDEFINED, 4, "EXIF_FlashpixVersion", COND_MANDATORY},
    {0xA001, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_ColorSpace", COND_MANDATORY},
    {0xA002, TIFF_LONG, 1, "EXIF_PixelXDimension",
     COND_MANDATORY},  // SHORT also OK
    {0xA003, TIFF_LONG, 1, "EXIF_PixelYDimension",
     COND_MANDATORY},  // SHORT also OK
    {0xA004, TIFF_ASCII, 13, "EXIF_RelatedSoundFile", COND_OPTIONAL},
    // { 0xA005, "EXIF_InteroperabilityOffset"},
    {0xA20B, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_FlashEnergy",
     COND_OPTIONAL},  // 0x920B in TIFF/EP
    {0xA20C, TIFF_UNDEFINED, 0, "EXIF_SpatialFrequencyResponse",
     COND_OPTIONAL},  // 0x920C    -  -
    {0xA20E, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_FocalPlaneXResolution",
     COND_OPTIONAL},  // 0x920E    -  -
    {0xA20F, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_FocalPlaneYResolution",
     COND_OPTIONAL},  // 0x920F    -  -
    {0xA210, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_FocalPlaneResolutionUnit",
     COND_OPTIONAL},  // 0x9210    -  -
    {0xA214, TIFF_SHORT, 2, "EXIF_SubjectLocation",
     COND_OPTIONAL},  // 0x9214    -  -
    {0xA215, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_ExposureIndex",
     COND_OPTIONAL},  // 0x9215    -  -
    {0xA217, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_SensingMethod", COND_OPTIONAL},  // 0x9217 - -
    {0xA300, TIFF_UNDEFINED, 1, "EXIF_FileSource", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA301, TIFF_UNDEFINED, 1, "EXIF_SceneType", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA302, TIFF_UNDEFINED, 0, "EXIF_CFAPattern", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA401, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_CustomRendered", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA402, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_ExposureMode", COND_RECOMMENDED},
    {0XA403, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_WhiteBalance", COND_RECOMMENDED},
    {0xA404, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_DigitalZoomRatio", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA405, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_FocalLengthIn35mmFilm", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA406, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_SceneCaptureType", COND_RECOMMENDED},
    {0xA407, TIFF_RATIONAL, 1, "EXIF_GainControl", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA408, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_Contrast", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA409, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_Saturation", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA40A, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_Sharpness", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA40B, TIFF_UNDEFINED, 0, "EXIF_DeviceSettingDescription", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA40C, TIFF_SHORT, 1, "EXIF_SubjectDistanceRange", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA420, TIFF_ASCII, 33, "EXIF_ImageUniqueID", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA430, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_CameraOwnerName", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA431, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_BodySerialNumber", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA432, TIFF_RATIONAL, 4, "EXIF_LensSpecification", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA433, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_LensMake", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA434, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_LensModel", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xA435, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "EXIF_LensSerialNumber", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x0000, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "", COND_NOT_ALLOWED}};

static const struct intr_tag
{
    GInt16 tag;
    const char *name;
} intr_tags[] = {

    {0x1, "EXIF_Interoperability_Index"},
    {0x2, "EXIF_Interoperability_Version"},
    {0x1000, "EXIF_Related_Image_File_Format"},
    {0x1001, "EXIF_Related_Image_Width"},
    {0x1002, "EXIF_Related_Image_Length"},
    {0x0000, ""}};

static const EXIFTagDesc IFD0Tags[] = {
    {0xC614, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "DNG_UniqueCameraModel", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0xC62F, TIFF_ASCII, 0, "DNG_CameraSerialNumber", COND_OPTIONAL},
    {0x0000, TIFF_NOTYPE, 0, "", COND_NOT_ALLOWED}};

/************************************************************************/
/*                         EXIFPrintData()                              */
/************************************************************************/
static void EXIFPrintData(char *pszData, GUInt16 type, GUInt32 count,
                          const unsigned char *data)
{
    const char *sep = "";
    char szTemp[128];
    char *pszDataEnd = pszData;

    pszData[0] = '\0';

    switch (type)
    {

        case TIFF_UNDEFINED:
        case TIFF_BYTE:
            for (; count > 0; count--)
            {
                snprintf(szTemp, sizeof(szTemp), "%s0x%02x", sep, *data);
                data++;
                sep = " ";
                if (strlen(szTemp) + pszDataEnd - pszData >= MAXSTRINGLENGTH)
                    break;
                strcat(pszDataEnd, szTemp);
                pszDataEnd += strlen(pszDataEnd);
            }
            break;

        case TIFF_SBYTE:
            for (; count > 0; count--)
            {
                snprintf(szTemp, sizeof(szTemp), "%s%d", sep,
                         *reinterpret_cast<const char *>(data));
                data++;
                sep = " ";
                if (strlen(szTemp) + pszDataEnd - pszData >= MAXSTRINGLENGTH)
                    break;
                strcat(pszDataEnd, szTemp);
                pszDataEnd += strlen(pszDataEnd);
            }
            break;

        case TIFF_ASCII:
            memcpy(pszData, data, count);
            // Strip trailing spaces or nul characters
            while (count > 0 &&
                   (pszData[count - 1] == ' ' || pszData[count - 1] == 0))
                --count;
            pszData[count] = '\0';
            break;

        case TIFF_SHORT:
        {
            const GUInt16 *wp = reinterpret_cast<const GUInt16 *>(data);
            for (; count > 0; count--)
            {
                snprintf(szTemp, sizeof(szTemp), "%s%u", sep, *wp);
                wp++;
                sep = " ";
                if (strlen(szTemp) + pszDataEnd - pszData >= MAXSTRINGLENGTH)
                    break;
                strcat(pszDataEnd, szTemp);
                pszDataEnd += strlen(pszDataEnd);
            }
            break;
        }
        case TIFF_SSHORT:
        {
            const GInt16 *wp = reinterpret_cast<const GInt16 *>(data);
            for (; count > 0; count--)
            {
                snprintf(szTemp, sizeof(szTemp), "%s%d", sep, *wp);
                wp++;
                sep = " ";
                if (strlen(szTemp) + pszDataEnd - pszData >= MAXSTRINGLENGTH)
                    break;
                strcat(pszDataEnd, szTemp);
                pszDataEnd += strlen(pszDataEnd);
            }
            break;
        }
        case TIFF_LONG:
        {
            const GUInt32 *lp = reinterpret_cast<const GUInt32 *>(data);
            for (; count > 0; count--)
            {
                snprintf(szTemp, sizeof(szTemp), "%s%u", sep, *lp);
                lp++;
                sep = " ";
                if (strlen(szTemp) + pszDataEnd - pszData >= MAXSTRINGLENGTH)
                    break;
                strcat(pszDataEnd, szTemp);
                pszDataEnd += strlen(pszDataEnd);
            }
            break;
        }
        case TIFF_SLONG:
        {
            const GInt32 *lp = reinterpret_cast<const GInt32 *>(data);
            for (; count > 0; count--)
            {
                snprintf(szTemp, sizeof(szTemp), "%s%d", sep, *lp);
                lp++;
                sep = " ";
                if (strlen(szTemp) + pszDataEnd - pszData >= MAXSTRINGLENGTH)
                    break;
                strcat(pszDataEnd, szTemp);
                pszDataEnd += strlen(pszDataEnd);
            }
            break;
        }
        case TIFF_RATIONAL:
        {
            const GUInt32 *lp = reinterpret_cast<const GUInt32 *>(data);
            //      if(bSwabflag)
            //      TIFFSwabArrayOfLong((GUInt32*) data, 2*count);
            for (; count > 0; count--)
            {
                if ((lp[0] == 0) || (lp[1] == 0))
                {
                    snprintf(szTemp, sizeof(szTemp), "%s(0)", sep);
                }
                else
                {
                    CPLsnprintf(szTemp, sizeof(szTemp), "%s(%g)", sep,
                                static_cast<double>(lp[0]) /
                                    static_cast<double>(lp[1]));
                }
                sep = " ";
                lp += 2;
                if (strlen(szTemp) + pszDataEnd - pszData >= MAXSTRINGLENGTH)
                    break;
                strcat(pszDataEnd, szTemp);
                pszDataEnd += strlen(pszDataEnd);
            }
            break;
        }
        case TIFF_SRATIONAL:
        {
            const GInt32 *lp = reinterpret_cast<const GInt32 *>(data);
            for (; count > 0; count--)
            {
                if ((lp[0] == 0) || (lp[1] == 0))
                {
                    snprintf(szTemp, sizeof(szTemp), "%s(0)", sep);
                }
                else
                {
                    CPLsnprintf(szTemp, sizeof(szTemp), "%s(%g)", sep,
                                static_cast<double>(lp[0]) /
                                    static_cast<double>(lp[1]));
                }
                sep = " ";
                lp += 2;
                if (strlen(szTemp) + pszDataEnd - pszData >= MAXSTRINGLENGTH)
                    break;
                strcat(pszDataEnd, szTemp);
                pszDataEnd += strlen(pszDataEnd);
            }
            break;
        }
        case TIFF_FLOAT:
        {
            const float *fp = reinterpret_cast<const float *>(data);
            for (; count > 0; count--)
            {
                CPLsnprintf(szTemp, sizeof(szTemp), "%s%g", sep, *fp);
                fp++;
                sep = " ";
                if (strlen(szTemp) + pszDataEnd - pszData >= MAXSTRINGLENGTH)
                    break;
                strcat(pszDataEnd, szTemp);
                pszDataEnd += strlen(pszDataEnd);
            }
            break;
        }
        case TIFF_DOUBLE:
        {
            const double *dp = reinterpret_cast<const double *>(data);
            for (; count > 0; count--)
            {
                CPLsnprintf(szTemp, sizeof(szTemp), "%s%g", sep, *dp);
                dp++;
                sep = " ";
                if (strlen(szTemp) + pszDataEnd - pszData >= MAXSTRINGLENGTH)
                    break;
                strcat(pszDataEnd, szTemp);
                pszDataEnd += strlen(pszDataEnd);
            }
            break;
        }

        default:
            return;
    }

    if (type != TIFF_ASCII && count != 0)
    {
        CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined, "EXIF metadata truncated");
    }
}

/*
 * Return size of TIFFDataType in bytes
 */
static int EXIF_TIFFDataWidth(int /* GDALEXIFTIFFDataType */ type)
{
    switch (type)
    {
        case 0: /* nothing */
        case TIFF_BYTE:
        case TIFF_ASCII:
        case TIFF_SBYTE:
        case TIFF_UNDEFINED:
            return 1;
        case TIFF_SHORT:
        case TIFF_SSHORT:
            return 2;
        case TIFF_LONG:
        case TIFF_SLONG:
        case TIFF_FLOAT:
        case TIFF_IFD:
            return 4;
        case TIFF_RATIONAL:
        case TIFF_SRATIONAL:
        case TIFF_DOUBLE:
            // case TIFF_LONG8:
            // case TIFF_SLONG8:
            // case TIFF_IFD8:
            return 8;
        default:
            return 0; /* will return 0 for unknown types */
    }
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                        EXIFExtractMetadata()                         */
/*                                                                      */
/*      Extract all entry from a IFD                                    */
/************************************************************************/
CPLErr EXIFExtractMetadata(char **&papszMetadata, void *fpInL, int nOffset,
                           int bSwabflag, int nTIFFHEADER, int &nExifOffset,
                           int &nInterOffset, int &nGPSOffset)
{
    /* -------------------------------------------------------------------- */
    /*      Read number of entry in directory                               */
    /* -------------------------------------------------------------------- */
    GUInt16 nEntryCount;
    VSILFILE *const fp = static_cast<VSILFILE *>(fpInL);

    if (nOffset > INT_MAX - nTIFFHEADER ||
        VSIFSeekL(fp, nOffset + nTIFFHEADER, SEEK_SET) != 0 ||
        VSIFReadL(&nEntryCount, 1, sizeof(GUInt16), fp) != sizeof(GUInt16))
    {
        CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                 "Error reading EXIF Directory count at " CPL_FRMT_GUIB,
                 static_cast<vsi_l_offset>(nOffset) + nTIFFHEADER);
        return CE_Failure;
    }

    if (bSwabflag)
        CPL_SWAP16PTR(&nEntryCount);

    // Some apps write empty directories - see bug 1523.
    if (nEntryCount == 0)
        return CE_None;

    // Some files are corrupt, a large entry count is a sign of this.
    if (nEntryCount > 125)
    {
        CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined,
                 "Ignoring EXIF directory with unlikely entry count (%d).",
                 nEntryCount);
        return CE_Warning;
    }

    GDALEXIFTIFFDirEntry *poTIFFDir = static_cast<GDALEXIFTIFFDirEntry *>(
        CPLMalloc(nEntryCount * sizeof(GDALEXIFTIFFDirEntry)));

    /* -------------------------------------------------------------------- */
    /*      Read all directory entries                                      */
    /* -------------------------------------------------------------------- */
    {
        const unsigned int n = static_cast<int>(VSIFReadL(
            poTIFFDir, 1, nEntryCount * sizeof(GDALEXIFTIFFDirEntry), fp));
        if (n != nEntryCount * sizeof(GDALEXIFTIFFDirEntry))
        {
            CPLError(CE_Failure, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "Could not read all directories");
            CPLFree(poTIFFDir);
            return CE_Failure;
        }
    }

    /* -------------------------------------------------------------------- */
    /*      Parse all entry information in this directory                   */
    /* -------------------------------------------------------------------- */
    vector<char> oTempStorage(MAXSTRINGLENGTH + 1, 0);
    char *const szTemp = &oTempStorage[0];

    char szName[128];

    GDALEXIFTIFFDirEntry *poTIFFDirEntry = poTIFFDir;

    for (unsigned int i = nEntryCount; i > 0; i--, poTIFFDirEntry++)
    {
        if (bSwabflag)
        {
            CPL_SWAP16PTR(&poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_tag);
            CPL_SWAP16PTR(&poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_type);
            CPL_SWAP32PTR(&poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_count);
            CPL_SWAP32PTR(&poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_offset);
        }

        /* --------------------------------------------------------------------
         */
        /*      Find Tag name in table */
        /* --------------------------------------------------------------------
         */
        szName[0] = '\0';
        szTemp[0] = '\0';

        for (const EXIFTagDesc *poExifTags = exiftags; poExifTags->tag;
             poExifTags++)
        {
            if (poExifTags->tag == poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_tag)
            {
                CPLAssert(nullptr != poExifTags->name);

                CPLStrlcpy(szName, poExifTags->name, sizeof(szName));
                break;
            }
        }

        if (szName[0] == 0)
        {
            for (const EXIFTagDesc *poTag = IFD0Tags; poTag->tag; poTag++)
            {
                if (poTag->tag == poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_tag)
                {
                    CPLAssert(nullptr != poTag->name);

                    CPLStrlcpy(szName, poTag->name, sizeof(szName));
                    break;
                }
            }
        }

        if (nOffset == nGPSOffset)
        {
            for (const EXIFTagDesc *poGPSTags = gpstags;
                 poGPSTags->tag != 0xffff; poGPSTags++)
            {
                if (poGPSTags->tag == poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_tag)
                {
                    CPLAssert(nullptr != poGPSTags->name);
                    CPLStrlcpy(szName, poGPSTags->name, sizeof(szName));
                    break;
                }
            }
        }
        /* --------------------------------------------------------------------
         */
        /*      If the tag was not found, look into the interoperability table
         */
        /* --------------------------------------------------------------------
         */
        if (nOffset == nInterOffset)
        {
            const struct intr_tag *poInterTags = intr_tags;
            for (; poInterTags->tag; poInterTags++)
                if (poInterTags->tag == poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_tag)
                {
                    CPLAssert(nullptr != poInterTags->name);
                    CPLStrlcpy(szName, poInterTags->name, sizeof(szName));
                    break;
                }
        }

        /* --------------------------------------------------------------------
         */
        /*      Save important directory tag offset */
        /* --------------------------------------------------------------------
         */

        // Our current API uses int32 and not uint32
        if (poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_offset < INT_MAX)
        {
            if (poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_tag == EXIFOFFSETTAG)
            {
                nExifOffset = poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_offset;
                continue;
            }
            else if (poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_tag == INTEROPERABILITYOFFSET)
            {
                nInterOffset = poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_offset;
                continue;
            }
            else if (poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_tag == GPSOFFSETTAG)
            {
                nGPSOffset = poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_offset;
                continue;
            }
        }

        /* ----------------------------------------------------------------- */
        /*      If we didn't recognise the tag, report it as CPLDebug()      */
        /* ----------------------------------------------------------------- */
        bool bUnknownTag = false;
        if (szName[0] == '\0')
        {
            snprintf(szName, sizeof(szName), "EXIF_%u",
                     poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_tag);
            bUnknownTag = true;
        }

        vsi_l_offset nTagValueOffset = poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_offset;

        /* --------------------------------------------------------------------
         */
        /*      For UserComment we need to ignore the language binding and */
        /*      just return the actual contents. */
        /* --------------------------------------------------------------------
         */
        if (EQUAL(szName, "EXIF_UserComment"))
        {
            poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_type = TIFF_ASCII;

            if (poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_count >= 8)
            {
                poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_count -= 8;
                nTagValueOffset += 8;
            }
        }

        /* --------------------------------------------------------------------
         */
        /*      Make some UNDEFINED or BYTE fields ASCII for readability. */
        /* --------------------------------------------------------------------
         */
        if (EQUAL(szName, "EXIF_ExifVersion") ||
            EQUAL(szName, "EXIF_FlashPixVersion") ||
            EQUAL(szName, "EXIF_MakerNote") ||
            EQUAL(szName, "GPSProcessingMethod") ||
            EQUAL(szName, "EXIF_XmlPacket"))
            poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_type = TIFF_ASCII;

        /* --------------------------------------------------------------------
         */
        /*      Print tags */
        /* --------------------------------------------------------------------
         */
        if (poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_count > static_cast<GUInt32>(MAXSTRINGLENGTH))
        {
            CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "Too many bytes in tag: %u, ignoring tag.",
                     poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_count);
            continue;
        }

        const int nDataWidth = EXIF_TIFFDataWidth(poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_type);
        if (nDataWidth == 0 || poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_type >= TIFF_IFD)
        {
            CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "Invalid or unhandled EXIF data type: %d, ignoring tag.",
                     poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_type);
            continue;
        }

        /* --------------------------------------------------------------------
         */
        /*      This is at most 4 byte data so we can read it from tdir_offset
         */
        /* --------------------------------------------------------------------
         */
        const int space = poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_count * nDataWidth;
        if (space >= 0 && space <= 4)
        {

            unsigned char data[4];
            memcpy(data, &poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_offset, 4);
            if (bSwabflag)
            {
                GUInt32 nValUInt32;
                // Unswab 32bit value, and reswab per data type.
                memcpy(&nValUInt32, data, 4);
                CPL_SWAP32PTR(&nValUInt32);
                memcpy(data, &nValUInt32, 4);

                switch (poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_type)
                {
                    case TIFF_LONG:
                    case TIFF_SLONG:
                    case TIFF_FLOAT:
                        memcpy(&nValUInt32, data, 4);
                        CPL_SWAP32PTR(&nValUInt32);
                        memcpy(data, &nValUInt32, 4);
                        break;

                    case TIFF_SSHORT:
                    case TIFF_SHORT:
                        for (unsigned j = 0; j < poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_count;
                             j++)
                        {
                            CPL_SWAP16PTR(reinterpret_cast<GUInt16 *>(data) +
                                          j);
                        }
                        break;

                    default:
                        break;
                }
            }

            /* coverity[overrun-buffer-arg] */
            EXIFPrintData(szTemp, poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_type,
                          poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_count, data);
        }
        /* --------------------------------------------------------------------
         */
        /*      The data is being read where tdir_offset point to in the file */
        /* --------------------------------------------------------------------
         */
        else if (space > 0 && space < MAXSTRINGLENGTH)
        {
            unsigned char *data =
                static_cast<unsigned char *>(VSIMalloc(space));

            if (data)
            {
                CPL_IGNORE_RET_VAL(
                    VSIFSeekL(fp, nTagValueOffset + nTIFFHEADER, SEEK_SET));
                CPL_IGNORE_RET_VAL(VSIFReadL(data, 1, space, fp));

                if (bSwabflag)
                {
                    switch (poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_type)
                    {
                        case TIFF_SHORT:
                        case TIFF_SSHORT:
                        {
                            for (unsigned j = 0; j < poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_count;
                                 j++)
                            {
                                CPL_SWAP16PTR(
                                    reinterpret_cast<GUInt16 *>(data) + j);
                            }
                            break;
                        }
                        case TIFF_LONG:
                        case TIFF_SLONG:
                        case TIFF_FLOAT:
                        {
                            for (unsigned j = 0; j < poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_count;
                                 j++)
                            {
                                CPL_SWAP32PTR(
                                    reinterpret_cast<GUInt32 *>(data) + j);
                            }
                            break;
                        }
                        case TIFF_RATIONAL:
                        case TIFF_SRATIONAL:
                        {
                            for (unsigned j = 0;
                                 j < 2 * poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_count; j++)
                            {
                                CPL_SWAP32PTR(
                                    reinterpret_cast<GUInt32 *>(data) + j);
                            }
                            break;
                        }
                        case TIFF_DOUBLE:
                        {
                            for (unsigned j = 0; j < poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_count;
                                 j++)
                            {
                                CPL_SWAPDOUBLE(
                                    reinterpret_cast<double *>(data) + j);
                            }
                            break;
                        }
                        default:
                            break;
                    }
                }

                EXIFPrintData(szTemp, poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_type,
                              poTIFFDirEntry->tdir_count, data);
                CPLFree(data);
            }
        }
        else
        {
            CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined,
                     "Invalid EXIF header size: %ld, ignoring tag.",
                     static_cast<long>(space));
        }

        if (bUnknownTag)
            CPLDebug("EXIF", "Ignoring %s=%s", szName, szTemp);
        else
            papszMetadata = CSLSetNameValue(papszMetadata, szName, szTemp);
    }
    CPLFree(poTIFFDir);

    return CE_None;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                        WriteLEUInt16()                               */
/************************************************************************/

static void WriteLEUInt16(GByte *pabyData, GUInt32 &nBufferOff, GUInt16 nVal)
{
    pabyData[nBufferOff] = static_cast<GByte>(nVal & 0xff);
    pabyData[nBufferOff + 1] = static_cast<GByte>(nVal >> 8);
    nBufferOff += 2;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                        WriteLEUInt32()                               */
/************************************************************************/

static void WriteLEUInt32(GByte *pabyData, GUInt32 &nBufferOff, GUInt32 nVal)
{
    pabyData[nBufferOff] = static_cast<GByte>(nVal & 0xff);
    pabyData[nBufferOff + 1] = static_cast<GByte>((nVal >> 8) & 0xff);
    pabyData[nBufferOff + 2] = static_cast<GByte>((nVal >> 16) & 0xff);
    pabyData[nBufferOff + 3] = static_cast<GByte>(nVal >> 24);
    nBufferOff += 4;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                          GetHexValue()                               */
/************************************************************************/

static int GetHexValue(char ch)
{
    const char chDEC_ZERO = '0';
    if (ch >= chDEC_ZERO && ch <= '9')
        return ch - chDEC_ZERO;
    if (ch >= 'a' && ch <= 'f')
        return ch - 'a' + 10;
    if (ch >= 'A' && ch <= 'F')
        return ch - 'A' + 10;
    return -1;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                         ParseUndefined()                             */
/************************************************************************/

static GByte *ParseUndefined(const char *pszVal, GUInt32 *pnLength)
{
    GUInt32 nSize = 0;
    bool bIsHexExcaped = true;
    const char chDEC_ZERO = '0';
    GByte *pabyData = reinterpret_cast<GByte *>(CPLMalloc(strlen(pszVal) + 1));

    // Is it a hexadecimal string like "0xA 0x1E 00 0xDF..." ?
    for (size_t i = 0; pszVal[i] != '\0';)
    {
        // 0xA
        if (pszVal[i] == chDEC_ZERO && pszVal[i + 1] == 'x' &&
            GetHexValue(pszVal[i + 2]) >= 0 &&
            (pszVal[i + 3] == ' ' || pszVal[i + 3] == '\0'))
        {
            pabyData[nSize] = static_cast<GByte>(GetHexValue(pszVal[i + 2]));
            nSize++;
            if (pszVal[i + 3] == '\0')
                break;
            i += 4;
        }
        // 0xAA
        else if (pszVal[i] == chDEC_ZERO && pszVal[i + 1] == 'x' &&
                 GetHexValue(pszVal[i + 2]) >= 0 &&
                 GetHexValue(pszVal[i + 3]) >= 0 &&
                 (pszVal[i + 4] == ' ' || pszVal[i + 4] == '\0'))
        {
            pabyData[nSize] = static_cast<GByte>(
                GetHexValue(pszVal[i + 2]) * 16 + GetHexValue(pszVal[i + 3]));
            nSize++;
            if (pszVal[i + 4] == '\0')
                break;
            i += 5;
        }
        // 00
        else if (pszVal[i] == chDEC_ZERO && pszVal[i + 1] == chDEC_ZERO &&
                 (pszVal[i + 2] == ' ' || pszVal[i + 2] == '\0'))
        {
            pabyData[nSize] = 0;
            nSize++;
            if (pszVal[i + 2] == '\0')
                break;
            i += 3;
        }
        else
        {
            bIsHexExcaped = false;
            break;
        }
    }

    if (bIsHexExcaped)
    {
        *pnLength = nSize;
        return pabyData;
    }

    // Otherwise take the string value as a byte value
    memcpy(pabyData, pszVal, strlen(pszVal) + 1);
    *pnLength = static_cast<GUInt32>(strlen(pszVal));
    return pabyData;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                             TagValue                                 */
/************************************************************************/

struct TagValue
{
    GUInt16 tag = 0;
    GDALEXIFTIFFDataType datatype = TIFF_NOTYPE;
    std::unique_ptr<GByte, VSIFreeReleaser> pabyVal{};
    GUInt32 nLength = 0;
    GUInt32 nLengthBytes = 0;
    int nRelOffset = 0;

    TagValue() = default;

    TagValue(TagValue &&) = default;
    TagValue &operator=(TagValue &&) = default;

    bool operator<(const TagValue &other) const
    {
        return tag < other.tag;
    }

  private:
    TagValue(const TagValue &) = delete;
    TagValue &operator=(const TagValue &) = delete;
};

/************************************************************************/
/*                        GetNumDenomFromDouble()                       */
/************************************************************************/

static bool GetNumDenomFromDouble(GDALEXIFTIFFDataType datatype, double dfVal,
                                  GUInt32 &nNum, GUInt32 &nDenom)
{
    nNum = 0;
    nDenom = 1;
    if (std::isnan(dfVal))
    {
        return false;
    }
    else if (datatype == TIFF_RATIONAL)
    {
        if (dfVal < 0)
        {
            return false;
        }
        else if (dfVal <= std::numeric_limits<unsigned int>::max() &&
                 dfVal == static_cast<GUInt32>(dfVal))
        {
            nNum = static_cast<GUInt32>(dfVal);
            nDenom = 1;
        }
        else if (dfVal < 1.0)
        {
            nNum = static_cast<GUInt32>(
                dfVal * std::numeric_limits<unsigned int>::max());
            nDenom = std::numeric_limits<unsigned int>::max();
        }
        else
        {
            nNum = std::numeric_limits<unsigned int>::max();
            nDenom = static_cast<GUInt32>(
                std::numeric_limits<unsigned int>::max() / dfVal);
        }
    }
    else if (dfVal < 0.0)
    {
        if (dfVal >= std::numeric_limits<int>::min() &&
            dfVal == static_cast<GInt32>(dfVal))
        {
            nNum = static_cast<GInt32>(dfVal);
            nDenom = 1;
        }
        else if (dfVal > -1.0)
        {
            nNum = -static_cast<GInt32>((-dfVal) *
                                        std::numeric_limits<int>::max());
            nDenom = std::numeric_limits<int>::max();
        }
        else
        {
            nNum = -std::numeric_limits<int>::max();
            nDenom =
                static_cast<GInt32>(std::numeric_limits<int>::max() / (-dfVal));
        }
    }
    else
    {
        if (dfVal <= std::numeric_limits<int>::max() &&
            dfVal == static_cast<GInt32>(dfVal))
        {
            nNum = static_cast<GInt32>(dfVal);
            nDenom = 1;
        }
        else if (dfVal < 1.0)
        {
            nNum = static_cast<GInt32>(dfVal * std::numeric_limits<int>::max());
            nDenom = std::numeric_limits<int>::max();
        }
        else
        {
            nNum = std::numeric_limits<int>::max();
            nDenom =
                static_cast<GInt32>(std::numeric_limits<int>::max() / dfVal);
        }
    }
    return true;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                       EXIFFormatTagValue()                           */
/************************************************************************/

enum class EXIFLocation
{
    MAIN_IFD,
    EXIF_IFD,
    GPS_IFD
};

static std::vector<TagValue> EXIFFormatTagValue(char **papszEXIFMetadata,
                                                EXIFLocation location,
                                                GUInt32 *pnOfflineSize)
{
    std::vector<TagValue> tags;
    int nRelOffset = 0;
    const EXIFTagDesc *tagdescArray =
        (location == EXIFLocation::GPS_IFD) ? gpstags : exiftags;

    for (char **papszIter = papszEXIFMetadata; papszIter && *papszIter;
         ++papszIter)
    {
        if (!STARTS_WITH_CI(*papszIter, "EXIF_"))
            continue;
        if (location == EXIFLocation::GPS_IFD &&
            !STARTS_WITH_CI(*papszIter, "EXIF_GPS"))
            continue;
        if (location != EXIFLocation::GPS_IFD &&
            STARTS_WITH_CI(*papszIter, "EXIF_GPS"))
            continue;

        bool bFound = false;
        size_t i = 0;  // needed after loop
        for (; tagdescArray[i].name[0] != '\0'; i++)
        {
            if (STARTS_WITH_CI(*papszIter, tagdescArray[i].name) &&
                (*papszIter)[strlen(tagdescArray[i].name)] == '=')
            {
                bFound = true;
                break;
            }
        }

        if (location == EXIFLocation::MAIN_IFD)
        {
            if (tagdescArray[i].tag > 0x8298)  // EXIF_Copyright
            {
                continue;
            }
        }
        else if (location == EXIFLocation::EXIF_IFD)
        {
            if (tagdescArray[i].tag <= 0x8298)  // EXIF_Copyright
            {
                continue;
            }
        }

        char *pszKey = nullptr;
        const char *pszValue = CPLParseNameValue(*papszIter, &pszKey);
        if (!bFound || pszKey == nullptr || pszValue == nullptr)
        {
            CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_NotSupported,
                     "Cannot write unknown %s tag", pszKey ? pszKey : "");
        }
        else if (tagdescArray[i].datatype == TIFF_NOTYPE)
        {
            CPLDebug("EXIF", "Tag %s ignored on write", tagdescArray[i].name);
        }
        else
        {
            TagValue tag;
            tag.tag = tagdescArray[i].tag;
            tag.datatype = tagdescArray[i].datatype;
            tag.nRelOffset = -1;

            if (tag.datatype == TIFF_ASCII)
            {
                if (tagdescArray[i].length == 0 ||
                    strlen(pszValue) + 1 == tagdescArray[i].length)
                {
                    tag.pabyVal.reset(
                        reinterpret_cast<GByte *>(CPLStrdup(pszValue)));
                    tag.nLength = 1 + static_cast<int>(strlen(pszValue));
                }
                else if (strlen(pszValue) >= tagdescArray[i].length)
                {
                    CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined,
                             "Value of %s will be truncated",
                             tagdescArray[i].name);
                    tag.pabyVal.reset(reinterpret_cast<GByte *>(
                        CPLMalloc(tagdescArray[i].length)));
                    memcpy(tag.pabyVal.get(), pszValue, tagdescArray[i].length);
                    tag.nLength = tagdescArray[i].length;
                    (tag.pabyVal.get())[tag.nLength - 1] = '\0';
                }
                else
                {
                    tag.pabyVal.reset(reinterpret_cast<GByte *>(
                        CPLMalloc(tagdescArray[i].length)));
                    memset(tag.pabyVal.get(), ' ', tagdescArray[i].length);
                    memcpy(tag.pabyVal.get(), pszValue, strlen(pszValue));
                    tag.nLength = tagdescArray[i].length;
                    (tag.pabyVal.get())[tag.nLength - 1] = '\0';
                }
                tag.nLengthBytes = tag.nLength;
            }
            else if (tag.datatype == TIFF_BYTE ||
                     tag.datatype == TIFF_UNDEFINED)
            {
                GUInt32 nValLength = 0;
                std::unique_ptr<GByte, VSIFreeReleaser> pabyVal(
                    ParseUndefined(pszValue, &nValLength));
                if (tagdescArray[i].length == 0 ||
                    nValLength == tagdescArray[i].length)
                {
                    if (tag.tag == 0x9286 &&
                        strncmp(pszValue, "0x", 2) != 0)  // EXIF_UserComment
                    {
                        const char *pszRealVal =
                            reinterpret_cast<const char *>(pabyVal.get());
                        const int nValueLen =
                            static_cast<int>(strlen(pszRealVal));
                        // 8 first bytes are the character code
                        // Set them to 0 to mean undefined
                        tag.pabyVal.reset(
                            static_cast<GByte *>(CPLCalloc(1, 8 + nValueLen)));
                        tag.nLength = 8 + nValueLen;
                        memcpy(tag.pabyVal.get() + 8, pszRealVal, nValueLen);
                    }
                    else
                    {
                        tag.pabyVal = std::move(pabyVal);
                        tag.nLength = nValLength;
                    }
                }
                else if (nValLength > tagdescArray[i].length)
                {
                    CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined,
                             "Value of %s will be truncated",
                             tagdescArray[i].name);
                    tag.pabyVal = std::move(pabyVal);
                    tag.nLength = tagdescArray[i].length;
                }
                else
                {
                    tag.pabyVal.reset(reinterpret_cast<GByte *>(
                        CPLRealloc(pabyVal.release(), tagdescArray[i].length)));
                    memset(tag.pabyVal.get() + nValLength, '\0',
                           tagdescArray[i].length - nValLength);
                    tag.nLength = tagdescArray[i].length;
                }
                tag.nLengthBytes = tag.nLength;
            }
            else if (tag.datatype == TIFF_SHORT || tag.datatype == TIFF_LONG)
            {
                char **papszTokens = CSLTokenizeString2(pszValue, " ", 0);
                GUInt32 nTokens = static_cast<GUInt32>(CSLCount(papszTokens));
                const GUInt32 nDataTypeSize =
                    (tag.datatype == TIFF_SHORT) ? 2 : 4;
                if (tagdescArray[i].length == 0 ||
                    nTokens == tagdescArray[i].length)
                {
                    // ok
                }
                else if (nTokens > tagdescArray[i].length)
                {
                    CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined,
                             "Value of %s will be truncated",
                             tagdescArray[i].name);
                }
                else
                {
                    CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined,
                             "Not enough values for %s: %d expected. "
                             "Filling with zeroes",
                             tagdescArray[i].name, tagdescArray[i].length);
                }

                tag.nLength = (tagdescArray[i].length == 0)
                                  ? nTokens
                                  : tagdescArray[i].length;
                tag.pabyVal.reset(reinterpret_cast<GByte *>(CPLCalloc(
                    1, cpl::fits_on<int>(nDataTypeSize * tag.nLength))));

                GUInt32 nOffset = 0;
                for (GUInt32 j = 0; j < std::min(nTokens, tag.nLength); j++)
                {
                    GUInt32 nVal = atoi(papszTokens[j]);
                    if (tag.datatype == TIFF_SHORT)
                        WriteLEUInt16(tag.pabyVal.get(), nOffset,
                                      static_cast<GUInt16>(nVal));
                    else
                        WriteLEUInt32(tag.pabyVal.get(), nOffset, nVal);
                }
                CSLDestroy(papszTokens);

                tag.nLengthBytes = tag.nLength * nDataTypeSize;
            }
            else if (tag.datatype == TIFF_RATIONAL ||
                     tag.datatype == TIFF_SRATIONAL)
            {
                char **papszTokens = CSLTokenizeString2(pszValue, " ", 0);
                GUInt32 nTokens = static_cast<GUInt32>(CSLCount(papszTokens));
                const GUInt32 nDataTypeSize = 8;
                if (tagdescArray[i].length == 0 ||
                    nTokens == tagdescArray[i].length)
                {
                    // ok
                }
                else if (nTokens > tagdescArray[i].length)
                {
                    CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined,
                             "Value of %s will be truncated",
                             tagdescArray[i].name);
                }
                else
                {
                    CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined,
                             "Not enough values for %s: %d expected. "
                             "Filling with zeroes",
                             tagdescArray[i].name, tagdescArray[i].length);
                }

                tag.nLength = (tagdescArray[i].length == 0)
                                  ? nTokens
                                  : tagdescArray[i].length;
                tag.pabyVal.reset(reinterpret_cast<GByte *>(
                    CPLCalloc(1, nDataTypeSize * tag.nLength)));

                GUInt32 nOffset = 0;
                for (GUInt32 j = 0; j < std::min(nTokens, tag.nLength); j++)
                {
                    double dfVal =
                        CPLAtof(papszTokens[j][0] == '(' ? papszTokens[j] + 1
                                                         : papszTokens[j]);
                    GUInt32 nNum = 1;
                    GUInt32 nDenom = 0;
                    if (!GetNumDenomFromDouble(tag.datatype, dfVal, nNum,
                                               nDenom))
                    {
                        CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined,
                                 "Value %f is illegal for tag %s", dfVal,
                                 tagdescArray[i].name);
                    }

                    WriteLEUInt32(tag.pabyVal.get(), nOffset, nNum);
                    WriteLEUInt32(tag.pabyVal.get(), nOffset, nDenom);
                }
                CSLDestroy(papszTokens);

                tag.nLengthBytes = tag.nLength * nDataTypeSize;
            }
            else
            {
                // Shouldn't happen. Programming error
                CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_NotSupported,
                         "Unhandled type %d for tag %s", tag.datatype,
                         tagdescArray[i].name);
            }

            if (tag.nLengthBytes != 0)
            {
                if (tag.nLengthBytes > 4)
                {
                    tag.nRelOffset = nRelOffset;
                    nRelOffset += tag.nLengthBytes + (tag.nLengthBytes % 1);
                }
                tags.push_back(std::move(tag));
            }
        }
        CPLFree(pszKey);
    }

    // Sort tags by ascending order
    std::sort(tags.begin(), tags.end());

#ifdef notdef
    if (location == EXIF_IFD &&
        CSLFetchNameValue(papszEXIFMetadata, "EXIF_ExifVersion") == nullptr)
    {
        const GUInt16 EXIF_VERSION = 0x9000;
        TagValue tag;
        tag.tag = EXIF_VERSION;
        tag.datatype = TIFF_UNDEFINED;
        tag.pabyVal.reset(reinterpret_cast<GByte *>(CPLStrdup("0231")));
        tag.nLength = 4;
        tag.nLengthBytes = 4;
        tag.nRelOffset = -1;
        tags.push_back(std::move(tag));
    }
#endif

    *pnOfflineSize = nRelOffset;

    return tags;
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                            WriteTag()                                */
/************************************************************************/

static void WriteTag(GByte *pabyData, GUInt32 &nBufferOff, GUInt16 nTag,
                     GDALEXIFTIFFDataType nType, GUInt32 nCount, GUInt32 nVal)
{
    WriteLEUInt16(pabyData, nBufferOff, nTag);
    WriteLEUInt16(pabyData, nBufferOff, static_cast<GUInt16>(nType));
    WriteLEUInt32(pabyData, nBufferOff, nCount);
    WriteLEUInt32(pabyData, nBufferOff, nVal);
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                            WriteTags()                               */
/************************************************************************/

static void WriteTags(GByte *pabyData, GUInt32 &nBufferOff,
                      GUInt32 offsetIFDData, const std::vector<TagValue> &tags)
{
    for (const auto &tag : tags)
    {
        WriteLEUInt16(pabyData, nBufferOff, tag.tag);
        WriteLEUInt16(pabyData, nBufferOff, static_cast<GUInt16>(tag.datatype));
        WriteLEUInt32(pabyData, nBufferOff, tag.nLength);
        if (tag.nRelOffset < 0)
        {
            CPLAssert(tag.nLengthBytes <= 4);
            memcpy(pabyData + nBufferOff, tag.pabyVal.get(), tag.nLengthBytes);
            nBufferOff += 4;
        }
        else
        {
            WriteLEUInt32(pabyData, nBufferOff, tag.nRelOffset + offsetIFDData);
            memcpy(pabyData + EXIF_HEADER_SIZE + tag.nRelOffset + offsetIFDData,
                   tag.pabyVal.get(), tag.nLengthBytes);
        }
    }
}

/************************************************************************/
/*                          EXIFCreate()                                */
/************************************************************************/

GByte *EXIFCreate(char **papszEXIFMetadata, GByte *pabyThumbnail,
                  GUInt32 nThumbnailSize, GUInt32 nThumbnailWidth,
                  GUInt32 nThumbnailHeight, GUInt32 *pnOutBufferSize)
{
    *pnOutBufferSize = 0;

    bool bHasEXIFMetadata = false;
    for (char **papszIter = papszEXIFMetadata; papszIter && *papszIter;
         ++papszIter)
    {
        if (STARTS_WITH_CI(*papszIter, "EXIF_"))
        {
            bHasEXIFMetadata = true;
            break;
        }
    }
    if (!bHasEXIFMetadata && pabyThumbnail == nullptr)
    {
        // Nothing to do
        return nullptr;
    }

    GUInt32 nOfflineSizeMain = 0;
    std::vector<TagValue> mainTags = EXIFFormatTagValue(
        papszEXIFMetadata, EXIFLocation::MAIN_IFD, &nOfflineSizeMain);

    GUInt32 nOfflineSizeEXIF = 0;
    std::vector<TagValue> exifTags = EXIFFormatTagValue(
        papszEXIFMetadata, EXIFLocation::EXIF_IFD, &nOfflineSizeEXIF);

    GUInt32 nOfflineSizeGPS = 0;
    std::vector<TagValue> gpsTags = EXIFFormatTagValue(
        papszEXIFMetadata, EXIFLocation::GPS_IFD, &nOfflineSizeGPS);

    const GUInt16 nEXIFTags = static_cast<GUInt16>(exifTags.size());
    const GUInt16 nGPSTags = static_cast<GUInt16>(gpsTags.size());

    // including TIFFTAG_EXIFIFD and TIFFTAG_GPSIFD
    GUInt16 nIFD0Entries = (nEXIFTags ? 1 : 0) + (nGPSTags ? 1 : 0) +
                           static_cast<GUInt16>(mainTags.size());

    GUInt32 nBufferSize = EXIF_HEADER_SIZE +  // Exif header
                          4 +                 // Tiff signature
                          4 +                 // Offset of IFD0
                          2 +                 // Number of entries of IFD0
                          nIFD0Entries * TAG_SIZE +  // Entries of IFD0
                          nOfflineSizeMain;

    if (nEXIFTags)
    {
        nBufferSize += 2 +  // Number of entries of private EXIF IFD
                       nEXIFTags * TAG_SIZE + nOfflineSizeEXIF;
    }

    if (nGPSTags)
    {
        nBufferSize += 2 +  // Number of entries of private GPS IFD
                       nGPSTags * TAG_SIZE + nOfflineSizeGPS;
    }

    GUInt16 nIFD1Entries = 0;
    if (pabyThumbnail)
    {
        nIFD1Entries = 5;
        nBufferSize += 4 +                        // Offset of IFD1
                       2 +                        // Number of entries of IFD1
                       nIFD1Entries * TAG_SIZE +  // Entries of IFD1
                       nThumbnailSize;
    }
    nBufferSize += 4;  // Offset of next IFD

    GByte *pabyData = nullptr;
    if (nBufferSize > 65536)
    {
        CPLError(CE_Warning, CPLE_AppDefined,
                 "Cannot write EXIF segment. "
                 "The size of the EXIF segment exceeds 65536 bytes");
    }
    else
    {
        pabyData = static_cast<GByte *>(VSI_CALLOC_VERBOSE(1, nBufferSize));
    }
    if (pabyData == nullptr)
    {
        return nullptr;
    }

    memcpy(pabyData, "Exif\0\0", EXIF_HEADER_SIZE);
    GUInt32 nBufferOff = EXIF_HEADER_SIZE;
    GUInt32 nTIFFStartOff = nBufferOff;

    // TIFF little-endian signature.
    const GUInt16 TIFF_LITTLEENDIAN = 0x4949;
    WriteLEUInt16(pabyData, nBufferOff, TIFF_LITTLEENDIAN);
    const GUInt16 TIFF_VERSION = 42;
    WriteLEUInt16(pabyData, nBufferOff, TIFF_VERSION);

    // Offset of IFD0
    WriteLEUInt32(pabyData, nBufferOff, nBufferOff - nTIFFStartOff + 4);

    // Number of entries of IFD0
    WriteLEUInt16(pabyData, nBufferOff, nIFD0Entries);

    if (!mainTags.empty())
    {
        GUInt32 offsetIFDData =
            nBufferOff - nTIFFStartOff + nIFD0Entries * TAG_SIZE + 4;
        WriteTags(pabyData, nBufferOff, offsetIFDData, mainTags);
    }

    GUInt32 nEXIFIFDOffset = 0;
    if (nEXIFTags)
    {
        WriteTag(pabyData, nBufferOff, EXIFOFFSETTAG, TIFF_LONG, 1, 0);
        nEXIFIFDOffset = nBufferOff - 4;
    }

    GUInt32 nGPSIFDOffset = 0;
    if (nGPSTags)
    {
        WriteTag(pabyData, nBufferOff, GPSOFFSETTAG, TIFF_LONG, 1, 0);
        nGPSIFDOffset = nBufferOff - 4;  // offset to patch
    }

    // Offset of next IFD
    GUInt32 nOffsetOfIFDAfterIFD0 = nBufferOff;
    WriteLEUInt32(pabyData, nBufferOff, 0);  // offset to patch

    // Space for offline tag values (already written)
    nBufferOff += nOfflineSizeMain;

    if (nEXIFTags)
    {
        // Patch value of EXIFOFFSETTAG
        {
            GUInt32 nTmp = nEXIFIFDOffset;
            WriteLEUInt32(pabyData, nTmp, nBufferOff - nTIFFStartOff);
        }

        // Number of entries of EXIF IFD
        WriteLEUInt16(pabyData, nBufferOff, nEXIFTags);

        GUInt32 offsetIFDData =
            nBufferOff - nTIFFStartOff + nEXIFTags * TAG_SIZE;
        WriteTags(pabyData, nBufferOff, offsetIFDData, exifTags);

        // Space for offline tag values (already written)
        nBufferOff += nOfflineSizeEXIF;
    }

    if (nGPSTags)
    {
        // Patch value of GPSOFFSETTAG
        {
            GUInt32 nTmp = nGPSIFDOffset;
            WriteLEUInt32(pabyData, nTmp, nBufferOff - nTIFFStartOff);
        }

        // Number of entries of GPS IFD
        WriteLEUInt16(pabyData, nBufferOff, nGPSTags);

        GUInt32 offsetIFDData =
            nBufferOff - nTIFFStartOff + nGPSTags * TAG_SIZE;
        WriteTags(pabyData, nBufferOff, offsetIFDData, gpsTags);

        // Space for offline tag values (already written)
        nBufferOff += nOfflineSizeGPS;
    }

    if (nIFD1Entries)
    {
        // Patch value of offset after next IFD
        {
            GUInt32 nTmp = nOffsetOfIFDAfterIFD0;
            WriteLEUInt32(pabyData, nTmp, nBufferOff - nTIFFStartOff);
        }

        // Number of entries of IFD1
        WriteLEUInt16(pabyData, nBufferOff, nIFD1Entries);

        const GUInt16 JPEG_TIFF_IMAGEWIDTH = 0x100;
        const GUInt16 JPEG_TIFF_IMAGEHEIGHT = 0x101;
        const GUInt16 JPEG_TIFF_COMPRESSION = 0x103;
        const GUInt16 JPEG_EXIF_JPEGIFOFSET = 0x201;
        const GUInt16 JPEG_EXIF_JPEGIFBYTECOUNT = 0x202;

        WriteTag(pabyData, nBufferOff, JPEG_TIFF_IMAGEWIDTH, TIFF_LONG, 1,
                 nThumbnailWidth);
        WriteTag(pabyData, nBufferOff, JPEG_TIFF_IMAGEHEIGHT, TIFF_LONG, 1,
                 nThumbnailHeight);
        WriteTag(pabyData, nBufferOff, JPEG_TIFF_COMPRESSION, TIFF_SHORT, 1,
                 6);  // JPEG compression
        WriteTag(pabyData, nBufferOff, JPEG_EXIF_JPEGIFOFSET, TIFF_LONG, 1,
                 nBufferSize - EXIF_HEADER_SIZE - nThumbnailSize);
        WriteTag(pabyData, nBufferOff, JPEG_EXIF_JPEGIFBYTECOUNT, TIFF_LONG, 1,
                 nThumbnailSize);

        // Offset of next IFD
        WriteLEUInt32(pabyData, nBufferOff, 0);
    }

    CPLAssert(nBufferOff + nThumbnailSize == nBufferSize);
    if (pabyThumbnail != nullptr && nThumbnailSize)
        memcpy(pabyData + nBufferOff, pabyThumbnail, nThumbnailSize);

    *pnOutBufferSize = nBufferSize;
    return pabyData;
}

#ifdef DUMP_EXIF_ITEMS

// To help generate the doc page
// g++ -DDUMP_EXIF_ITEMS gcore/gdalexif.cpp -o dumpexif -Iport -Igcore -Iogr -L.
// -lgdal

int main()
{
    printf("<table border=\"1\">\n");                         /* ok */
    printf("<tr><th>Metadata item name</th><th>Hex code</th>" /* ok */
           "<th>Type</th><th>Number of values</th><th>Optionality</th></tr>\n");
    for (size_t i = 0; exiftags[i].name[0] != '\0'; i++)
    {
        if (exiftags[i].datatype == TIFF_NOTYPE)
            continue;
        printf(/* ok */ "<tr><td>%s</td><td>0x%04X</td><td>%s</td><td>%s</"
                        "td><td>%s</"
                        "td></tr>\n",
               exiftags[i].name, exiftags[i].tag,
               exiftags[i].datatype == TIFF_BYTE        ? "BYTE"
               : exiftags[i].datatype == TIFF_ASCII     ? "ASCII"
               : exiftags[i].datatype == TIFF_UNDEFINED ? "UNDEFINED"
               : exiftags[i].datatype == TIFF_SHORT     ? "SHORT"
               : exiftags[i].datatype == TIFF_LONG      ? "LONG"
               : exiftags[i].datatype == TIFF_RATIONAL  ? "RATIONAL"
               : exiftags[i].datatype == TIFF_SRATIONAL ? "SRATIONAL"
                                                        : "?????",
               exiftags[i].length ? CPLSPrintf("%d", exiftags[i].length)
                                  : "variable",
               exiftags[i].comprCond == COND_MANDATORY     ? "<b>Mandatory</b>"
               : exiftags[i].comprCond == COND_OPTIONAL    ? "Optional"
               : exiftags[i].comprCond == COND_RECOMMENDED ? "Recommended"
                                                           : "?????");
    }
    printf("</table>\n"); /* ok */

    printf("<table border=\"1\">\n");                         /* ok */
    printf("<tr><th>Metadata item name</th><th>Hex code</th>" /* ok */
           "<th>Type</th><th>Number of values</th><th>Optionality</th></tr>\n");
    for (size_t i = 0; gpstags[i].name[0] != '\0'; i++)
    {
        if (gpstags[i].datatype == TIFF_NOTYPE)
            continue;
        printf(/* ok */
               "<tr><td>%s</td><td>0x%04X</td><td>%s</td><td>%s</td><td>%s</"
               "td></tr>\n",
               gpstags[i].name, gpstags[i].tag,
               gpstags[i].datatype == TIFF_BYTE        ? "BYTE"
               : gpstags[i].datatype == TIFF_ASCII     ? "ASCII"
               : gpstags[i].datatype == TIFF_UNDEFINED ? "UNDEFINED"
               : gpstags[i].datatype == TIFF_SHORT     ? "SHORT"
               : gpstags[i].datatype == TIFF_LONG      ? "LONG"
               : gpstags[i].datatype == TIFF_RATIONAL  ? "RATIONAL"
               : gpstags[i].datatype == TIFF_SRATIONAL ? "SRATIONAL"
                                                       : "?????",
               gpstags[i].length ? CPLSPrintf("%d", gpstags[i].length)
                                 : "variable",
               gpstags[i].comprCond == COND_MANDATORY     ? "<b>Mandatory</b>"
               : gpstags[i].comprCond == COND_OPTIONAL    ? "Optional"
               : gpstags[i].comprCond == COND_RECOMMENDED ? "Recommended"
                                                          : "?????");
    }
    printf("</table>\n"); /* ok */

    return 0;
}

#endif